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Two figures of the human head - Écorché (left), and bone (right)
“Écorché“ is a figure depicted without skin. It can be sculpted, painted, or drawn, and is most often created as a figure study by artists.
Understanding the bone and musculature under the skin can help create a much more accurate and realistic work of art.
Wellcome Library collection. Ink and sepia wash by A.V.A., 1860.
Bearwarden and Eurasian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos arctos)
While the brown bear has been extinct in England and Ireland for several hundred years, there were significant populations in continental Europe until the 19th century. Bear-baiting, or having a (chained and sometimes muzzled) bear "fight" a performer or other animal, was unfortunately popular entertainment from ancient Rome through to the Victorian era. Trained "dancing bears" were seen by many as the humane alternative to bear-baiting. While it's far from an ideal situation for the bear, it was probably better than the alternative.
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One of the key differences in bipedal (two-footed) and quadrupedal (four-footed) animals is their pelvis shape. Obviously, the attachment point and position of the femurs to the pelvis is different, but a less obvious difference is the size of the ilium and iliac crests - the "wings" on top of the hips. The very large size in humans is necessary for the strong attachment of the gluteal muscles, which are crucial to our upright posture.
Comparative Anatomy, applied to the Purposes of an Artist. B. Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860.
Man (Homo sapiens sapiens), Cow (Bos taurus), and Ram (Ovis aries)
The structure of the ruminant animals varies considerably. It's important for the artist to recognize the vertebral layout and rib structure, even of animals that are covered in thick wool or fur. Wild bovids (such as bison) and aurochs have extended cervical vertebrae that form a "hump" over their shoulders.
A Comparative View of the Human and Animal Frame. B. Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860.
Man, and the Lion
Both the anatomist and the artist can see here the vast difference in forelimb and hindlimb structure between the lion and man (provided solely for comparison). The forelimb of the lion is far thicker and sturdier than that of man, but the digits and bone layout are very much alike, save that the lion has but four digits on the hindlimb.
In the forelimbs, the lion has pronounced bony sheaths for its retractile claws, which form a very visible rounded enlargement at the end of the end of each toe. These are not nearly as evident on the hindlimbs, where a very slight indication of the claw can be seen at the end of the digit. Other things important to note are the tooth structure and arrangement, and what teeth are showing when a lion is attacking.
Together, the size and weight of the front limbs and their corresponding muscles, along with the teeth and jaws, can be said to be the characteristic points of the lion. The hind limbs, slender neck, vertebral column, and ribs, are only suggestive of the agility which allows this animal to use his front limbs and jaws with such power as to have rendered the figure of the Lion a symbol of strength, power, and destruction.
A Comparative View of the Human and Animal Frame. B. Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860.
Thamnocenchris aurifer (now Bothriechis aurifer) consuming Agalychnis moreletii
The Guatemalan pit viper and Morelet's treefrog share virtually the same habitat (southern Mexico through Guatemala), and both have suffered from habitat loss.
However, the Morelet's treefrog (like almost every treefrog species in the area) has been hit hard by the transmissible fungus, chytridiomycosis, and is now critically endangered. Approximately 80% of the already-small population is expected to die off in the next few years if there's no way found to halt the progression of this disease.
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1860.
A case of cancrum oris following whooping cough. While whooping cough was resolving, a black sore was noted on the cheek. The sore remained there for 5 days, and on the fifth day spread to the gums and all the nearby teeth fell out. Cheek sloughed away soon after. Standard treatment for noma (gangrenous stomatitis) was given, but to no avail. Child died within 72 hours. Though noma was and is a serious disease, it was rarely so quickly fatal, especially when treated. On autopsy, the bronchi were inflamed and filled with mucous as happens with children who die of broncho-pneumonia.
The author of the book noted that noma and cancrum oris were two separate conditions. From what I can find in the modern literature, cancrum oris is now considered an antiquated term for noma, and noma is a disease of varying degrees.
Somewhat frighteningly, the only successful method of arresting the advance of what was known as "cancrum oris" was noted to be destroying all gangrenous tissue with nitric acid. These days, very strong antibiotics and greatly improved nutrition are the typical cures, though gangrenous tissue does still have to be excised in the end. At least we don't have to burn it off with acid.
From The Surgical Diseases of Children. By J. Cooper Forster, 1860.
