Biomedical Ephemera, or: A Frog for Your Boils

The Temple Viper - Trimesurus subannulatus (now Tropidolaemus walgeri)

The Temple Viper is so-called because of its abundance within the Temple of the Azure Cloud (aka “Snake Temple”), in Malaysia. Once thought to have numerous sub-species or to be different species altogether, there are numerous color and size variations of this snake, but genetic sequencing shows them to be a single species. 

This is a venomous snake, and a member of the arboreal Asiatic pit vipers (part of the subfamily Crotalinae). Like all pit vipers, they are able to sense body heat, and are ambush predators. 

While many of the snakes at the Snake Temple have been de-venomed (a less-harmful but still-invasive tactic than de-fanging a snake) to render them “safe”, there is a native population of temple vipers in the surrounding areas, and individuals from that population have come into the temple of their own accord, with venom fully intact. These native snakes (or skipped-over temple snakes) have been known to envenomate pilgrims to the temple on occasion.

Interestingly, as the Walgerins (venom proteins unique to this species) are so specialized to mouse neuroreceptors, they have a somewhat lessened effect upon humans - not that it’s recommended you play with these snakes. They’re still deadly, but the peptides within their venom are much more potent by volume against rodents than other animals.

Seriously though, don’t play with venomous snakes. They don’t want to be your friend.

Contributions to the Natural History of Labuan, and the adjacent Coasts of Borneo. James Motley and Lewis Llewellyn Dillwyn, 1855.

Carolus Linnaeus in Laponian costume

Carolus (also translated as "Carl") Linnaeus' favorite plant was the Twinflower (Linnaea borealis). It was not named after him by himself, but by his teacher, Grovonius.

When Linnaeus was elevated to nobility, he adopted the twinflower as his personal symbol.

Painting by Hendrik Hollander, 1853. Via Wikimedia Commons.

Let us dance!

A giant octopus (Enteroctopus spp.) grapples a sailor, clearly in an attempt to steal a dance.

Illustrated Natural History of the Animal Kingdom. S. G. Goodrich, 1859.

Layered plate from "Man: His Structure and Physiology" by Robert Knox

Robert Knox is the Edinburgh anatomist who, based upon the 16 bodies delivered to him by William Burke and William Hare, gave spirited dissections in surgical theaters and illustrated this anatomy book. So "involved" and gruesome was he in the dissections that when John James Audubon attended one of his lectures, he remarked:

While Hare turned face and testified against Burke, who was eventually put to death (and publicly dissected, himself), Robert Knox was later acquitted of any involvement with the murders, and of any knowledge regarding the origin of the bodies. The public of Edinburgh disagreed with the court, and drove him out of town.

Though Knox has long been associated with the pair, and he should probably have taken more care in asking where the bodies came from, the light of history has shown that he did nothing illegal or untoward, especially in a day where cadavers were extremely difficult to legally come by. His enthusiasm for "continental" anatomy courses, where students also dissect bodies, was his downfall - so many bodies were needed that it was impossible to procure them all.

After the Burke and Hare fiasco, Scotland widened the availability of cadavers to anatomists with the Anatomy Act of 1832. Robert Knox had since left for London by that point, however, and spent the remainder of his days illustrating medical and zoological texts, performing pathological anatomy, and writing about his questionable theories on race, speciation, and anthropometry.

This copy of Robert Knox's book resides at the Horniman Museum & Gardens in London, England.

The Horniman Museum can also be found on tumblr and Flickr.

How bad science could have changed the world...or at least the Father of Evolution: Physiognomy

We all know the basic course of the development and dissemination of the theory of natural selection. A young Charles Darwin embarks on the second voyage of the HMS Beagle, visits the Galapagos islands, collects countless specimens, and writes extensively about his theories of natural selection and evolution. Prompted by a similar (if much simplified) paper being written and refined by Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin presented his own theory to the Linnean Society of London in 1859.

At the end of 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which expounded upon his original paper, and was the cornerstone of evolutionary biology, genetics, paleontology, and ethnology (for better or for worse) for the next several decades. Alfred Russel Wallace was much less interested in publishing his own theory (which was very similar to Darwin's, if not as in-depth) than collecting and documenting the plants, animals, and peoples of the Amazon and other tropical regions.

If Darwin had not been as interested as he was in explaining his theories to his colleagues (and staying in Europe with his wife instead of exploring more), all of the aforementioned fields would have been set back decades, possibly until Wallace actually published his own complete works - and possibly even later, as Wallace didn't have the clout that Darwin did by the end of his life.

But why would Darwin have not been able to develop his theories?

You know how most of his theories were really fleshed out and how he began to really understand how biogeography and speciation occurred when he analyzed the finches and tortoises of the Galapagos?

Darwin was almost denied the position upon the HMS Beagle - because of the shape of his nose.

Captain Robert FitzRoy knew that Charles Darwin fit all of his requirements for a ship naturalist and personal companion. He was ready to accept him - until he saw Darwin in person.

As FitzRoy was an adherent to the theories of Johann Lavater, the Father of Modern Physiognomy, he strongly believed that the nose of Charles Darwin meant he had a serious "lack of determination". Along with the less-important (to these men) difference of FitzRoy being a Tory, while Darwin was a Whig, the young naturalist was lucky he was not turned away at the door.

After spending a week together and finding each other agreeable, FitzRoy and Darwin negotiated a contract, set sail, and made history.

Despite being in vogue well into the 20th century, phrenology, and its partner physiognomy, have been proven time and again to have no basis in science. While certain facial or skeletal features can occasionally lead doctors to diagnose certain conditions (such as Down syndrome or hydrocephaly), there is no link between facial or cranial structure and personality. Sources: 1. AboutDarwin.com 2. StrangeScience.net

Images: Top and Middle: Young Charles Darwin. Wikimedia Commons Bottom: Charles Darwin's head. Judged to be strong in "preceptive", "semi-precetptive" (indicating intelligence), and weak in "combatativeness" and "willfullness" (not violent or determined?). How to Read the Human Head and Face. H. Ellis Foster, 1903.

Lepidosiren aimectans [now Lepidosiren paradoxa] - South American lungfish

This curious Amazon-basin fish is one of the few obligate air-breathers in the fish world, meaning it cannot get its oxygen from the water it lives in, and must breathe from the surface. It's also notable in the ichthyological world for being a hibernator when conditions are poor, much like frogs and toads. It can encase itself in a cocoon of mud, and re-emerge as much as 6 months later, having had no fresh air or water in the mean time.

The first naturalists to encounter these fish in the mid-19th century recognized that when they dissolved these mud-cases underwater, the encased fish would "come back to life", but they assumed that the mud casing was a very short-term protection capsule for the fish.

When they took the capsules back to Europe and dissolved them, assuming they would get some dead (but preserved) specimens, the lungfish took more than one group of zoologists by surprise when they sprung back to life, even after a 3-month voyage over the Atlantic.

South American lungfish behavior hasn't been as well-studied as African lungfish behavior, but their hibernation/estivation behaviors are very similar. However, the South American lungfish is not believed to be as capable of crossing land as African lungfish, owing to its smaller "limbs" and its very swampy environment - African lungfish tend to live in ponds with defined shorelines, rather than swampland.

Popular History of the Aquarium of Marine and Fresh-Water Animals and Plants. George Brettingham Sowerby, 1857.

Wound closure techniques ca. 1855.

Fig 1. Closure of the wound without sutures, using adhesives and cloth. Fig 2. Simple interrupted suture. Fig 3. Simple uninterrupted suture. Fig 4. Interfolded suture, with stabilizing rods. Suture passes under wound and is pulled together despite no stitches over the wound site. Fig 5. "Suture en zigzags" - Continuous horizontal mattress suture. Fig 6. Twisted suture. Dieffenbach used this stitch in the early steps of his reconstructive surgery. Fig 7. Suture needle holder. Fig 8. Curved suture needles.

Précis iconographique de Médecine Opératoire et d'Anatomie Chirurgicale. Drs. Bernard and Huette, 1854.

The Pronghorn - Antilocapra americana

The pronghorn is still colloquially known as the "prong-horned antelope", even though it's not actually related to the true Old World antelopes, which are native to Asia and Africa. It fills a similar ecological niche, and appears very similar, due to convergent evolution.

When humans first arrived in North America, there were five species of Antilocarpa extant, but the other four have since gone extinct. The other North American Artiodactyla were much larger than the pronghorns are. In fact, the fawns of these ruminants are so small at birth (only a few lbs) that they're not uncommonly snatched by golden eagles, in smaller harems that cannot effectively defend their offspring while eating.

Quadrupeds of North America. John James Audubon, 1854.

Doris sumptuosa [now Hexabranchus sanguineus] - "Spanish Dancer"

The "Spanish Dancer" nudibranch is named for its flamboyant "skirts" that swish around like a flamenco dancer. Hexabranchus sanguineus is found around the world, wherever the water is warm enough.

The species was first described based on a specimen from the Red Sea, where its coloration is almost blood-red (hence the "sanguineus" - blood-like). However, the color can vary from red, to orange, to bright yellow (though pure yellow is quite rare).

These are some of the largest nudibranchs out there. Adults can reach up to 40 cm in length.

United States Exploring Expedition, under the command of Charles Wilkes: Atlas, Mollusca and Shells. Augustus A. Gould, 1856.

Black Piranha - Serrasalmus rhombus

The black piranha (also known as the redeye or rhombeus piranha) has recently been discovered to have a bite force as strong as the estimated force of the extinct Megapiranha.

Though the negative stigma towards piranhas is largely undeserved, the mature black piranha is one of the most aggressive fish. This is especially true recently, with the over-fishing of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, depleting the food sources of the adult fish.

Most species of juvenile piranhas feed on the scales and fins of others fish. Yes, they will swim up to, and rip the fins off of big fish, especially as they near maturity, but are not yet large enough to reliably hunt down other fish.

Despite their huge size (up to 1 m long, four times longer than adult black piranhas) and extremely strong bite force, the Megapiranha of the Pleistocene era (8-10 mya) wasn't believed to have a solely carnivorous diet. Their saw-shaped teeth bear similarities to the Serrasalmus genus, but also to the teeth of the Pacu, or "vegetarian piranha".

Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro à Lima et de Lima au Para. Under direction of  Le Comte Francis de Castelnau, 1856.